Zinc oxide nanoparticles harness autophagy to induce cell death in lung epithelial cells.

Although zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) are widely used, they have raised concerns of toxicity in humans. Previous studies have indicated that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and autophagy are involved in the cytotoxicity of ZnONPs, but the regulatory mechanisms between autophagy and ROS remain to be elucidated. Herein, we comprehensively investigated the regulatory mechanism of autophagy and the link between autophagy and ROS in ZnONPs-treated lung epithelial cells. We demonstrated that ZnONPs could induce autophagy, and this process could enhance the dissolution of ZnONPs in lysosomes to release zinc ions. Sequentially, zinc ions released from ZnONPs were able to damage not only lysosomes, leading to impaired autophagic flux, but also mitochondria. Impaired autophagic flux resulted in the accumulation of damaged mitochondria, which could generate excessive ROS to cause cell death. We further demonstrated that the inhibition of autophagy by either pharmacological inhibitors or small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of Beclin-1 and AMP-activated protein kinase could ameliorate ZnONPs-induced cell death. Moreover, we found that lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1/2 (LAMP-1/2), which were the most abundant highly glycosylated protein in late endosomes/lysosomes, exhibited aberrant expression pattern upon treatment with ZnONPs. Intriguingly, LAMP-2 knockdown, but not LAMP-1 knockdown, could exacerbate the ROS generation and cell death induced by ZnONPs treatment. Meanwhile, LAMP-2 overexpression alleviated ZnONPs-induced cell death, suggesting that LAMP-2 was linked to this toxic phenotype induced by ZnONPs. Our results indicate that autophagic dysfunction could contribute to excessive ROS generation upon treatment with ZnONPs in lung epithelial cells, suggesting that modulating the autophagy process would minimize ZnONPs-associated toxicity.